What Enabled Dictators to Come to Power in Europe
The conditions that enabled dictators to rise to power in the interwar period
Chapter 2.1 "The conditions that enabled dictators to rise to power in the interwar period" p.27
The impact of World War I and the impact of the Great Depression, which began in 1929, were the two most significant factors which enabled dictatorships to rise in the interwar period. The economic dislocation caused hunger and suffering and led people to look for solutions that were not being provided by the liberal centre politicians.
These conditions were exploited by strong-willed right wing parties which offered simplistic, nationalistic solutions that were attractive to a large number of people. The ready availability of discontented young soldiers returning from the war gave these right wing groups a military force with which they could create chaos on the streets and then be seen to be the solution to that chaos.
The disunity of parties on the left and centre of politics prevented an effective response to the problems faced by countries which fell to dictatorship.
These points are very general and do not apply equally to each of the countries that fell to dictatorship in the interwar period, so it is important to look at the individual countries for specific reasons.
Russia
Russia's descent into dictatorship began while the war was still being fought. The March revolution of 1917 saw the fall of the Romanov dynasty. The Provisional Government, which took power after the revolution, attempted to maintain the war against Germany but with no more success than the previous government.
Vladimir Lenin (1870 - 1924) 
Following the revolution, soviets (councils of workers and soldiers representatives) formed, as they had in 1905. The soviets were comprised of socialists - Bolsheviks, Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries. They cooperated with the liberal, bourgeois Provisional Government, even to the extent of supporting the war effort.
The significant development which led to the overthrow of the Provisional Government was the arrival of Lenin in Petrograd in April 1917. Lenin was a strong personality and saw the possibility of the smallest socialist party, the Bolsheviks, taking power from the Provisional Government, through the soviets. A premature coup attempt in July saw them fail and Lenin was forced into exile in Finland. From that point, the unity of the Provisional Government crumbled and the Bolsheviks continued to increase their numbers with the soviets. They launched their revolution in November 1917 in the name of the Petrograd Soviet, taking control of all key government positions in Petrograd. Their coup was ratified at the meeting of the Second All-Russian Council of Soviets the following day. Trotsky, as War Minister, grew the size and strength of the Red army and over the following months the Bolsheviks took control of all main cities in central Russia.
Leon Trotsky (1879 - 1940)
In March 1918, the Bolsheviks signed a peace treaty with Germany, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. This allowed their opponents to use returning soldiers to try to overthrow the Bolshevik government. The subsequent civil war between the Bolsheviks' Red Army and the opposing White Armies almost led to defeat of the Bolsheviks. However, disunity and weak military leadership in the White Armies, and the strong military leadership of Trotsky and the unity of the Red Army led to victory for the Bolsheviks by 1921.
Conclusion: the dislocation caused by World War I led to the political upheaval in Russia that caused the Romanov government to be overthrown. This caused an unstable political situation that was exploited by a strong determined leader, at the head of a disciplined party, who, using armed force, was able to take power from disunited opponents.
Italy
Mussolini and the Black Shirts, October 1922
Read p.27 "The growth of Italian nationalism".
Italy's experience in World War I was different from that of Germany or Russia. Italy was one of the victors!
Why was Italy disappointed with the settlement after World War I?
Italy was promised land on the Adriatic Sea when it joined the war in 1915. They felt they didn't get what they were promised in the post-war settlement. This led them to feel resentful and tpo question the value of so much human sacrifice during the war.
What turmoil within Italy did this disappointment lead to?
There were strikes in the cities, poverty in the countryside, inability of the government to decide on policies, and increasing support for the communists. The return of soldiers from WWI led to the rise of paramilitary groups and street violence.
Read pp.33-5 "Italy"
How did the fascists exploit the post World War I turmoil to come to power?
The fascists opposed communism, democracy and liberal ideas. They promoted centralised power and strength. The Blackshirts were used to break strikes and physically attack opponents. In 1922 the fascists spread the false rumour that the communists were about to launch a revolution. They marched on Rome to prevent this.
How important was Mussolini's role in the Fascists' seizure of power?
Japan
Read pp.36-8 "Japan"
How did the Great Depression affect Japan?
During the Depression, trade was restricted as Western nations raised tariffs on Japanese products. Japan believed the West used the League of Nations to control the world's resources. Japan also resented restrictions on Asian immigration in the West.
What was result of Japan's attitude towards the West?
These anti-Western feelings in Japan led to a growth of extreme nationalism. As the government was not doing enough to address these issues, people looked to the military to provide territorial expansion which would give them economic growth.
What happened in Manchuria and how did Japan react to the Western response?
Manchuria was the first Japanese territorial expansion since the Russo-Japanese War. In September 1931, without the consent of the government in Tokyo, the Kwantung Army seized Mukden and began to taken over the whole of Manchuria, which was achieved by the beginning of the following year. The League of Nations condemned Japan's aggression and demanded its withdrawal. Rather than withdraw from Manchuria (renamed Manchukuo), Japan withdrew from the League.
How did militant nationalism increase in Japan after the Manchurian Crisis?
This 'success' by Japan encouraged militant right-wing nationalist groups and led to a climate of fear and intimidation which included assassination of political enemies and propaganda supporting a more aggressive foreign policy.
Germany
Chapter 3, pp.47-8 "The 1923 occupation of the Ruhr and hyperinflation"
Friedrich Ebert (1871 - 1925), first President of the Weimar Republic
Germany went into a prolonged period of turmoil as a result of its defeat in World War I. Up to the end of 1923, the new democratic government was assaulted from the extreme left (Communists) and the extreme right (nationalists including Nazis). It suffered a major economic disaster in 1923. The government didn't fall to a dictatorship at this time and the period from 1924 to 1929 was a relatively stable and prosperous period for Germany. The onset of the Great Depression in 1929 created the conditions which allowed the Nazi Party to come to power.
The November Revolution
On 9 November 1918, the Kaiser was forced to abdicate and a new Chancellor, Friedrich Ebert, of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) was appointed. Germany was now a democratic republic. The new government signed the armistice (11 November) and prepared for elections and to write a new constitution. An agreement with General Groener, successor to Ludendorff, gave the new government an assurance of support from the Germany army. This allowed the army to maintain its dignity after the humiliating defeat in the war, and also ensured its political influence in the new republic.
The Spartacist Uprising
The Spartacist League was a Marxist organisation led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg. They attempted to overthrow the new government in a counter-revolution just as the Bolsheviks had done in Russia in November 1917. They took advantage of the demonstrations in Berlin in January 1919, seizing key buildings in the city. The revolution was brutally suppressed by the Freikorps , ex-soldiers who had formed an unofficial army. Liebknecht and Luxemburg were murdered. Similar uprisings occurred in in other cities. In Munich, 500 were killed.
The democratic Weimar Republic
The political parties of the extreme left or right comprised radicals who wanted to overthrow the democracy.
Extreme Left: Communist Party (KPD), Independent Social Democratic Party (USPD)
Moderate/Centre: Social Democratic Party ( SPD), German Democratic Party (DDP), Centre Party (ZP) German People's Party (DVP)
Extreme Right: German National People's Party (DNVP), National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP)
On 19 January, elections held. The moderate parties gained the vast majority of votes, showing the people's approval of the new democratic republic. On 6 February, the Assembly met at Weimar for the first time. Ebert was appointed President. In July 1919, a new constitution was approved. One key element of the constitution was Article 48 which gave the President the power to suspend the constitution and rule by decree in times of instability.
The Lower House was called the Reichstag. Members of the Reichstag were elected by Proportional Representation, which ensured that no one party gained a majority in any election during the 14 years of the Weimar republic.
The Treaty of Versailles
Refer back to your notes on the Treaty of Versailles for Germany's reaction to the Treaty.
The lasting impact of the Treaty was its political consequences. The war loss and now the humiliating treaty were associated with the Weimar Republic. This was used to great effect in propaganda by right wing politicians.
The huge reparations bill caused immediate economic and political instability.
The Threat from the Right
Wolfgang Kapp (1858 - 1922)
The first attack from the extreme right was the Kapp Putsch in March 1920. This was initiated by aFreikorps Brigade and supported by General Luttwitz (commander of army in Berlin). 12,000 men marched on Berlin, causing the government to flee. General von Seeckt, head of German army, sympathised with the rebels and prevented the army from intervening. Rebels took key buildings and declared a new government under Wolfgang Kapp. The Putsch was defeated by the workers of Berlin who began a general strike which paralysed Berlin.The putsch failed and Luttwitz and Kapp fled Berlin.
The Putsch showed that t he army could not be relied upon to support the government against a threat from the right. There were few repercussions for the leaders of the putsch. There were many opponents of the republic on the extreme right of politics. Some of these were the landowning class ( junkers ); the former ruling class, especially industrialists, civil service and judiciary; the army; and nationalists Extreme nationalists committed over 370 political murders up to 1922. The most prominent wereMatthias Erzberger (killed in Aug 1921, for being one of the "November Criminals") and Walter Rathenau (Foreign Minister, killed in June 1922 for supporting the policy of fulfilment, and being Jewish).
German stamp from 1975 commemorating the centenary of the birth of Matthias Erzberger
1923
The occupation of the Ruhr, January 1923
In 1921, theReparations Commission established the sum of 132 billion gold marks, paid by Germany in instalments in cash and resources. In 1922 Germany could not pay the second reparations payment. In January 1923, France occupied the Ruhr with 60,000 troops. Germans in the Ruhr began passive resistance, refusing to cooperate with the French. France used force and its own labour to achieve its aims of exploiting the Ruhr resources.
Hyperinflation, 1923
In the postwar period,instead of raising taxes, the German government printed more money to pay reparations, wages and war pensions. This led to inflation which by 1923, with the French occupation of the Ruhr, became hyperinflation . This caused great suffering for many, especially those on fixed incomes or living off savings. Some people profited - landowners, farmers and industrialists.
A new Chancellor was appointed in August 1923, Gustav Stresemann (DVP). Under Stresemann passive resistance in the Ruhr was ended and the currency was reformed..E conomic reforms were brought in to restore the economy: cut expenditure and introduced new taxes.
Hyperinflation - a 10 billion mark note
New political unrest and the threat of separatism
The economic turmoil and end of passive resistance in the Ruhr brought separatist movements in Bavaria (right wing, Gustav von Kahr), Thuringia and Saxony (left wing).Article 48 was used by Ebert and the army restored order in Thuringia and Saxony, showing the army was willing to act quickly against a left wing threat.
On 8/9 November, Adolf Hitler's Nazi Party, with Ludendorff and other extreme nationalists staged the Munich Beerhall Putsch, attempting to take control of the Bavarian government, before marching on Berlin. It had little support and was quickly suppressed. 16 Nazis were killed; Hitler was arrested.
The Years of Stability 1924-1929
The Dawes Plan (April 1924) restructured reparations payments, and provided foreign loans to Germany. This allowed Germany to recover economically so that it could meet its reparations payments. The standard of living improved, and industrial growth beat pre-war levels. However, not everyone prospered. Unemployment was still high (10% in 1926) and farmers suffered from low prices and high debt. Germany was living off borrowed money. If the supply stopped the economy would collapse. Economic power was in the hands of industrialists who supported the republic while they prospered, but later embraced the right when their power was threatened in the Great Depression.
In February 1925, President Ebert died. Hindenburg was encouraged to stand and won with a narrow majority. Hindenburg was from a conservative Junker military background; he was very old (77 in 1925). However, he worked to support the constitution and make the republic work. Also his election brought some acquiescence towards the republic from the right; and his person lent the position of President prestige which many felt it lacked under Ebert. In foreign affairs, Germany was able to rejoin the European diplomatic community. Under Stresemann (Foreign Minister from November 1924), Germany cooperated with France to end Germany's diplomatic isolation and help restore the economy. Germany, France and Belgium signed t he Treaty of Locarno in 1925 which guaranteed the borders between Germany and France and Belgium and renounced war as an instrument of foreign policy. In 1926 Germany joined the League of Nations. In 1929 the Young Plan reduced total reparations payments to 37,000 million marks, with annual instalments until 1988.
What Enabled Dictators to Come to Power in Europe
Source: https://sites.google.com/a/syd.catholic.edu.au/boudica/12-modern-history/power-and-authority/dictators